Special Education Terminology — Plain-Language Definitions

Assistive technology device means, under 34 CFR §300.5, any item, piece of equipment, or product system — acquired commercially, modified, or customized — used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability. IEP teams must consider AT needs at every annual review (34 CFR §300.324(a)(2)(v)). Categories include mobility, communication (AAC), access (switches, eye-gaze), cognition, and learning (TTS, speech-to-text).

AAC is an area of clinical practice and a category of assistive technology that supplements or replaces spoken or written communication for individuals with complex communication needs. AAC spans unaided modes (sign, gesture) and aided modes (picture-exchange, speech-generating devices, app-based systems). Core-vocabulary research shows fewer than 400 words account for approximately 80% of everyday utterances (Banajee, Dicarlo & Stricklin 2003, AAC Journal 19(2):67-73).

ADA Title II (42 U.S.C. §§12131-12165; 28 CFR Part 35) prohibits disability discrimination by state and local government entities, including public schools. The April 2024 DOJ Final Rule requires web content and mobile applications of public entities to conform to WCAG 2.1 Level AA — with compliance deadlines of April 24, 2026 for jurisdictions with populations of 50,000 or more, and April 26, 2027 for smaller entities.

A BIP is the written, function-based plan developed from an FBA that specifies antecedent strategies to prevent challenging behavior, teaching procedures for functionally equivalent replacement behaviors, reinforcement procedures for the replacement behavior, response strategies for the target behavior, and a crisis plan when applicable. Function-matched BIPs produce PND of 88% versus 68% for non-matched interventions (Gage et al. 2012, Behavioral Disorders 37(2):55-77).

CBM is a set of brief, standardized, repeatable fluency probes (typically 1-3 minutes) administered weekly or biweekly to monitor student response to intervention. Originating with Deno (1985, Exceptional Children 52(3):219-232), CBM produces slope estimates that are used for RTI/MTSS decision-making. Reliability coefficients typically exceed .90 for oral reading fluency; Fuchs & Fuchs recommend a 4-point rule: four consecutive data points below the aim line trigger an instructional change.

CRA is an explicit-instruction sequence for mathematics in which students first manipulate three-dimensional objects (concrete), then work with two-dimensional drawings or diagrams (representational), and finally operate on symbolic notation alone (abstract). The meta-analytic review of 30 single-case design studies by Ebner et al. (2025, Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 40(1)) yielded a statistically significant Tau-BC effect size of 0.9965, and CRA is listed as an evidence-based practice by the What Works Clearinghouse for students with math learning disabilities.

COPPA (15 U.S.C. §§6501-6506; 16 CFR Part 312) regulates online services directed to children under 13 or that knowingly collect personal information from children under 13. The January 2025 FTC amendments (effective April 22, 2026) expand the definition of personal information to include biometric identifiers, require a written data retention policy, mandate a written information security program, and restrict disclosure of children's data to third parties without separate verifiable parental consent.

ESY services are special education and related services provided to an eligible student with a disability beyond the normal school year, at no cost to the parent, when the IEP team determines ESY is necessary to provide FAPE (34 CFR §300.106). Eligibility is individually determined — most states apply a "regression-recoupment" analysis, though federal courts have rejected bright-line rules (Johnson v. Independent School District No. 4, 921 F.2d 1022 (10th Cir. 1990)).

FAPE is the core IDEA entitlement (20 U.S.C. §1401(9); 34 CFR §300.17) guaranteeing every eligible child with a disability special education and related services provided at public expense, meeting state standards, and delivered under an IEP reasonably calculated to enable appropriate progress. The Supreme Court clarified the substantive standard in Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District (2017), 580 U.S. 386.

An FBA is a systematic data-collection process, required under 34 CFR §300.530(d)(1)(ii) when a student's behavior impedes learning, that identifies the function of challenging behavior — escape, attention, tangible, or sensory — through antecedent-behavior-consequence (ABC) records, structured interviews, and direct observation. The hypothesized function drives the Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP). Function-matched interventions yield approximately 20 percentage-point larger effects than non-matched ones (Gage, Lewis & Stichter 2012, Behavioral Disorders 37(2):55-77).

FERPA (20 U.S.C. §1232g; 34 CFR Part 99) is the federal statute protecting the privacy of student education records. It grants parents (and students age 18+) the right to inspect, request amendment of, and control disclosure of education records; requires prior written consent for most disclosures of personally identifiable information; and mandates an annual notification of rights. Schools must maintain a record of disclosures (34 CFR §99.32).

An IEP is the federally mandated written plan, required by 34 CFR §300.320-§300.324, that details a student's present levels (PLAAFP), measurable annual goals, special education and related services, supplementary aids, participation with nondisabled peers, state-assessment accommodations, projected service dates, and transition services (beginning no later than the first IEP in effect when the child turns 16). It must be reviewed at least annually.

An IFSP is the written plan required under IDEA Part C (34 CFR §303.340-§303.346) for infants and toddlers (ages 0-3) with developmental delays or diagnosed conditions. Unlike an IEP, it centers the family: it documents child status across five domains (cognitive, physical, communication, social-emotional, adaptive), family resources and priorities, measurable outcomes, early-intervention services in natural environments, and the transition plan to Part B preschool services at age 3.

IDEA (20 U.S.C. §1400 et seq.; reauthorized 2004; regulations at 34 CFR Parts 300 and 303) is the primary federal statute governing special education in the United States. Part B covers school-age children (ages 3-21); Part C covers infants and toddlers (ages 0-3). IDEA guarantees FAPE in the LRE, mandates the IEP process, establishes procedural safeguards, and recognizes 13 disability categories for eligibility.

Indicator 13 is the federal State Performance Plan/Annual Performance Report measure, under 20 U.S.C. §1416(a)(3)(B), that tracks whether each student aged 16 and older has an IEP containing measurable postsecondary goals in education/training and employment (and, where appropriate, independent living); annually updated goals based on age-appropriate transition assessment; transition services; a multi-year course of study; documented invitation to the IEP meeting; and, with parent consent, representatives of participating agencies. National compliance averaged 56% in 2020-2021 (US DOE SPP/APR data).

The IEP case manager is the district-designated professional — most commonly a special education teacher — responsible for coordinating the development, implementation, and progress monitoring of a student's IEP. Duties typically include scheduling and facilitating IEP meetings, ensuring procedural compliance, coordinating related services, communicating with parents, writing progress reports, and serving as the LEA representative's operational lead. Though not explicitly named in federal regulation, the role is recognized in virtually every state SEA guidance.

LRE requires, under 34 CFR §300.114, that students with disabilities be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate, with removal from the regular classroom only when the nature or severity of the disability prevents satisfactory progress even with supplementary aids and services. Placement is a continuum, not a fixed setting, and must be individually determined.

MTSS is an integrated, data-driven prevention framework that organizes academic, behavioral, and social-emotional supports across three tiers of increasing intensity: universal Tier 1 (all students), targeted Tier 2 (approximately 10-15% needing supplemental support), and intensive Tier 3 (approximately 1-5% needing individualized intervention). MTSS emerged as the integration of RTI (academic) and PBIS (behavior) and is embedded in ESSA (20 U.S.C. §6301) and IDEA (34 CFR §300.307(a)(2)).

ORF is a CBM probe in which a student reads aloud a grade-level passage for one minute; the score is the number of Words Correct Per Minute (WCPM). ORF is the single strongest indicator of general reading competence in Grades 1-8, with validated norms across fall/winter/spring and percentile bands published by Hasbrouck & Tindal (2017, Tech. Rep. #1702, Univ. of Oregon). ELL and dialectal-variation factors must be considered to prevent misreferral.

Occupational therapy is a related service under 34 CFR §300.34(c)(6) provided by a qualified occupational therapist to improve, develop, or restore functions impaired or lost through illness, injury, or deprivation; to improve ability to perform tasks for independent functioning when functions are impaired or lost; or to prevent further impairment or loss of function. In school settings, OT targets fine-motor skills, sensory integration, self-regulation, and activities of daily living that support participation in the educational program.

The PLAAFP statement is a federally required section of every Individualized Education Program (IEP) under 34 CFR §300.320(a)(1) that describes a student's current academic and functional skill levels. It must be written in measurable, data-grounded language drawn from recent evaluations, curriculum-based measurement, and classroom observation, and it establishes the baseline from which all annual goals are derived.

PBIS is a schoolwide, tiered framework for behavior support grounded in applied behavior analysis that teaches and reinforces clear behavioral expectations, collects discipline data to guide decisions, and layers targeted (Tier 2) and intensive individualized (Tier 3) supports. The 4-year cluster RCT by Bradshaw, Waasdorp & Leaf (2015, J Educational Psychology 107(2):546-557; 37 schools, N=12,344) produced an office-discipline-referral effect size d=0.86 and is rated "Meets WWC Standards Without Reservations."

Physical therapy is a related service under 34 CFR §300.34(c)(9) provided by a qualified physical therapist to address gross-motor functioning, mobility, posture, balance, and participation in the school environment. In schools, PT focuses on educationally relevant outcomes — navigating hallways, stairs, playgrounds, and positioning for classroom tasks — not medical rehabilitation.

Procedural safeguards (34 CFR §§300.500-300.536) are the federal due-process protections afforded to parents of children with disabilities under IDEA. Key rights include: prior written notice before any change of identification, evaluation, or placement; access to all education records; independent educational evaluation at public expense; mediation; due-process hearings; and the "stay-put" provision during disputes. Districts must provide a copy of the procedural safeguards notice annually and upon specified events.

RTI is a three-tiered academic prevention model embedded in IDEA 2004 under 34 CFR §300.307(a)(2) that permits (and in some states requires) the use of a student's response to evidence-based intervention as part of determining Specific Learning Disability eligibility. It comprises universal screening, tiered intervention of increasing intensity, and curriculum-based progress monitoring. RTI has largely been absorbed into the broader MTSS framework.

Speech-language pathology services are a related service under 34 CFR §300.34(c)(15) delivered by a licensed speech-language pathologist to identify and treat communication disorders affecting speech, language, voice, fluency, and swallowing that impact educational performance. SLPs also conduct AAC evaluations and support implementation of augmentative and alternative communication systems.

Section 504 (29 U.S.C. §794; 34 CFR Part 104) is a civil-rights statute prohibiting disability discrimination by any recipient of federal funds, including public schools. A student qualifies for a 504 Plan if they have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity; the plan documents accommodations (not specialized instruction). Unlike IDEA, Section 504 has no federal funding stream and broader eligibility.

UDL is an instructional-design framework, codified as "Universal Design for Learning" in the Higher Education Opportunity Act (20 U.S.C. §1003(24)) and updated to Guidelines 3.0 by CAST (July 2024), that provides curricula with Multiple Means of Engagement (the "why" of learning), Multiple Means of Representation (the "what"), and Multiple Means of Action and Expression (the "how"). UDL anticipates learner variability at the design stage rather than retrofitting accommodations after instruction.

WCPM is the raw score of an Oral Reading Fluency probe: the total words read aloud in one minute minus errors (mispronunciations, omissions, substitutions, hesitations longer than 3 seconds). Hasbrouck & Tindal's (2017) compiled ORF norms provide 10th/25th/50th/75th/90th percentile bands for Grades 1-8 across fall, winter, and spring benchmark periods.